| The buddha Gotama had
left the world; those that were not fortunate enough to have been his
contemporary and hear the dhammafrom his lips would have to wait through
countless rebirths in the hope that they would be in this world, as a man, when
the next and final teaching Buddha was to come, Mettaya." Though Gotama had
left mankind, the legacy of his fine example (buddha), his teachings (dhamma)
and the order of monks to continue his example and propagate his teachings
(sangha), the path to salvation, as conceived by the people of Pagan, and
indeed many a Burman to this day, was not an easy one. King Sithu I expressed
this in the poetry of his Shwe-gu-gyi temple inscription dedicated in 1131:
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| ..Rarely, rarely in this
world are Buddhas'born and to be born a man is hard, and hard to bear the
Buddha's law.
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| It was Sithu's prayer
that he might be present, by virtue of this meritorious deed, when Mettaya
comes, for to hear the dhamma from the mouth of a buddha is to instantly attain
enlightenment, a preferable option to the long struggle that he would otherwise
be required to pursue. Anawrahta likewise looked to Mettaya for salvation and
wrote on the back of one of his votive tablets:
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| I. King Anawralrta the
Great, have cast this image of the Buddha. May I, by virtue of this act of
merit, gain the bliss of nibbana during the dispensation of Arimettaya.
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| Mettaya thus became a
popular cult figure at Pagan, and, by the Late Period, countless inscriptions
clearly state that, whilst building a hpaya in honour of Gotama, the Buddha,
the donor's thoughts were directed towards Mettaya upon whose advent they
pinned their hopes." Devotion to Mettaya, at Pagan, did perhaps go beyond that
of being a sub-cult, to become a significant religious movement in its own
right. It would, though, be inaccurate to regard this religious phenomena as a
Mahayana one, this was a local movement within the Theravada framework. Mettaya
had been worshipped by the Pyu who passed the cult on to Pagan.
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| In no other Buddhist
country, Mahayana or Theravada, did the cult of Mettaya cause so radical a
departure from established architectural forms. The nga-myet-hna, or pentagonal
form of architectural ground plan, achieved some measure of popularity in the
Late Period, including the patronage of the King Sithu II, who built the highly
ambitious Dhammayazika stupa in 1196, which surely is the ultimate
architectural manifestation of the Mettaya cult." Likewise in sculpture, hpaya
is placed alongside hpaya. In the museum of Pyu art at Hmawza, near Prome, two
stone slabs feature representations of the five buddhas of this bhadrakalpa,
which includes Gotama beside Mettaya, who is uncrowned. This pictorial
equivalent of the architectural nga-myet-hna is known in Burmese as
hpaya-ngazu: the Five Sacred Lords'. This arrangement of the five buddhas,
treated in an identical manner, is an indigenous Pyu. iconographical
development. Though five buddha arrangements, the jina or dhyani buddhas, were
part of the Mahayana belief system, neither a pentagonal architectural form,
nor the simultaneous depiction of past and future buddhas, in identical mudra,
was part of the Mahayana iconography.
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| Also unearthed at Sri
Ksetra is a small stone relief depicting Gotama, in his customary
bhumisparsamudra, alongside Mettaya, who is bejewelled and apparelled in the
costume of a cakkavatti, or 'Universal Monarch'. A near-identical work has been
found at Pagan, again underlining the fact that Pagan took its version of
Buddhism, and its art, from the Pyu. Images of Gotama and Mettaya together are,
though, rare at Pagan, possibly one of the last interpretations of this theme
are the twin Earth Touching Buddhas in the west facing shrine of the
Dhamma-yan-gyi temple; this pair, by their style, may be dated to the Early Ava
Period. In this instance Mettaya is seated in the bhumisparsamudra, as is
Gotama, and neither is crowned nor royally adorned. Mettaya was likewise
depicted in this iconographically abnormal manner, as buddha manifest, rather
than bodhisattva, in the hpaya-nga-zu of the Pyu, and the images in the shrines
on each of the five faces of a nga-myethan stupa or temple are likewise treated
identically in the bhumisparsamudra, without any form of differing attributes
for the future bunions.
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| A possible textual source
for either the Pyu or later 'buddha beside buddha', or Gotama alongside
Mettaya, may be derived from the Saddharinapundailka Sutra,or `Lotus Sutra', a
Mahayana work of great importance, that describes the ultimate moment when the
two buddhas meet and sit together." Elements of the Mahayana had become infused
into the religious life of the Pyu, whilst the great purification of the Early
Period had suppressed any such Mahayanist tendencies in contemporary religious
life; iconographic elements, such as 'buddha meeting buddha', from the
Mahayana, were rarely to recur until this highly curious Ava work at the
Dhamma-yan-gyi.
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| Despite this hpaya-nga-zu
connection, Mettaya was conventionally portrayed, in full bodhisattva garb, not
as an icon in a shrine, singly or part of a cycle in a ngamyet-hna
architectural complex, but as a dvarapala, or 'door keeper', usually made of
stucco and brick, or painted on the wall, flanking the entrance to a shrine.
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| SUPPORTERS- OF THE BUDDHA |
| 1) Bodhisattva and Dvarapala |
| Though Avalokitesvara was
known to the Pyu, the bodhisattva that at Pagan was most widely portrayed, with
the exception of Mettaya, was Lokantha, himself a form of Avalokitesvara.
Lokantha was followed in Pyu times, as a number of finds from the Sri Ksetra
area testify, and his image was directly transplanted from the Pyu to Pagan.
The earliest figures of Lokantha found at Pagan are on the estamped votive
tablets signed by King Anawrahta: "This image of Lokantha has been cast. by the
great king, Sri Aniruddhadeva, by his own hands in order that he might win
liberation.
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| In these images the
bodhisattva poses in lalitasana, with hands raised in the varadamudra, seated
on a double lotus throne; he is ornamented with fine jewellery and crowned with
a jatamukutacrown. The bodhisattva'sfigure is set within a trefoil niche,
carried by pillars and surmounted by a sikhara finial, about the pavilion are
relief stupas, bulbous like those of the Pyu, and five in number-the
hpaya-nga-zu.
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| Other Lokantha depictions
found at Pagan are made from bronze, some cast locally and some imported. The
image found in `Scovell's Pawdawmu Pagoda' in 1920 may be compared with a
similar work found in 1915 at the Paung-gu temple at Myinkaba. In their apparel
and appurtenances these images are quite similar: jatamukuta crown, enveloping
lotus stems and princely ornaments; however, the Paw-daw-mu image is far cruder
in execution than the other, the lines less sinuous, the surfaces lacking in
the smooth plasticity of the Paung-gu find. The Paunggu image is most likely an
import from the northern Buddhist world, whilst the other is of local
manufacture.
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| Lokantha, the local
variety of Avalokitesvara, existed alongside Avalokitesvara himself, and other
gods of the Mahayana pantheon, in Pyu Burma. Avalokitesvara bronze images,
standing in the tribhanga pose, with the figure of Amitabha Buddha in his
headdress, have also been found at Pagan, as have images of Tara, however, it
is in the medium of painting that the northern gods make their most frequent
appearance. In the following descriptions of the monuments, the positioning of
the bodhisattva in a dvarapala, or guardian, role is frequently noted. These
visually impressive figures, royally regaled, sometimes multi-armed, riding
their vahana and accompanied by their sakti the best preserved example of which
is in the Myinkaba Kub-yauk-gyi are iconographically subjugated to the central
icon of Gotama, and the portrayals of his life and past lives. At Pagan, these
figures are borrowed from the Mahayana world to support and protect the faith
as dvarapala, and were not themselves icons.
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| Lokantha may also support
the Buddha together with Mettaya, again the earliest examples of such triads
are to be found in votive tablets that date back to Pyu times. In such
instances, to accurately discern the one bodhisattva from the other is
difficult, and it is questionable whether the tablet's donors made such a
distinction. The most colossal rendition of this theme during our periods may
be found in the little known temple No.315 (Taungbon Lokantha), where, set in
recesses, emulative of caves, on the north and south sides of the central
block, are two such bodhisattva, seated in lalitasana. Lokantha survives today
in Burma; when priest or layman is asked the significance of this god
invariably the answer is "Nat".It was Anawrahta himself, who, on his tablet
that bears this triad, wrote by hand, "King Anawrahta, who conforms to the true
doctrine, is the donor of this tablet.
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|
2) Mogallana and Sariputta
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| The two chief disciples
of the Buddha do not make an immediate entry into the iconography of Pagan.
From the Late Period, and up to the present times, their inclusion, whether
painted or as 'sculpture, had become near mandatory. In the Early Period, other
triads, arranged about a central buddha were popular: the hpaya-thon-zu or
'Three Sacred Lords', Lokantha and Mettaya, as discussed above, and Brahma and
Indra. Mogallana and Sariputta's earliest painted depiction is in the
Pa-hto-tha-mya temple (c.1080). At the Lokha-teik-pan (c.1130), the two
disciples are prominent in the painted backdrop to the Buddha, their clean
shaven heads, shadowed by haloes, in three-quarter profile. This arrangement
was to continue with little variation to the end.of the period and in later
periods of Burma's art. The two disciples may also appear flanking the Buddha
in scenes such as the `Twin Miracle' or the `Taming of the Nalagiri Elephant'
from the bodawin.In the Abe-ya-dana (c.1080s), two brick and stucco figures
flank the Buddha in attitudes of devotion, these doubtless depict Mogallana and
Sariputta. These premier followers of the Buddha were generally included in the
votive tablets and bronzes from all of the Pagan periods and after, ever pious
and adoring." In the Ananda west shrine (c.1105.1, Kyanzittha extended this
human theme to include himself, with his co-reformer, Shin Arahan, the
contemporary equivalents of the two original disciples of the Buddha.
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| 3) Gavampati |
| No image of this figure
has yet been found at Pagan, however, he is referred to in a number of
inscriptions and he is used as the prophetic spokesman in Kyanzittha's
panegyric inscriptions In the Tharba Gate inscription Lord Gawampati is
referred to alongside the "golden Buddha" and "four thousand one hundred and
eight lords of the church of whom our lord, Shin Arahan, was the leader. 6
Gavampati was one of the Buddha's disciples, and is mentioned in the Pali
scriptures, however in Burma, as Luce notes, in some mysterious way he becomes
associated with Genesa. The question arises: was the disciple Gavampati
depicted as Ganesa, or was he portrayed as a monk? In India, Ganesa is also
called Ganapatipossibly the word Gavampati is a derivative of this.
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|
Gavampati'is also referred to as 'Lord of the Cattle
and is said to have been patron of the Mon merchants." More likely this figure
was the mysterious `Fat Monk'.
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|
| 4) The Fat Monk |
| n the Pagan Museum are a
number of curious stone images of a pot bellied figure. These images have been
found in relic chambers throughout South East Asia: in Burma at the old
Bo-tataung pagoda, in modern Rangoon, at Sri Ksetra, Pegu and Mandalay.
Arakanese versions have also been found, whilst a number of similar examples
have been located in Thailand. This figure seems to have enjoyed a- wide
following, though his cult has not survived till today. Identifications have
been various: Kubera, or the Shan-Thai Mahakachi, the Chinese Mi-lo Fo, or even
Mettaya. Luce believes, along with U Mya, that this image represents Gavampati,
so often referred to, yet without a surviving image, for Gavampati too was a
monk and his cult extended to the Mons as well as the Burpans. However, U Aung
Kyaing, in a recent article, identifies the image with the Thai Mahakachi.
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| 5) Brahma and Indra |
| In certain instances
four-headed Brahma, on the left, and Indra, crowned with a jatamukuta, on the
right, flank the Buddha, and thus a further triad is formed. This triad was
established in the early periods of Buddhist art and as a combination,
supporting the Buddha, in no way contradicted the tenets of the Buddha's
teaching, that had originally marked a rejection of Brahmanism. At Pagan, this
triad is usually to be found in scenes depicting the Buddha's Descent from
Tavatimsa.
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| As an individual figure,
Brahma is more frequently found than Indra, the most obvious example of this
are the fine stone reliefs that face the piers of the Nanhpaya Temple
(1060/70). Other early examples may be found in the Vaisnavite Nathlaung-kyaung
temple and painted above the dvarapalabodhisattva guardians in the Myinkaba
Ku-byauk-gyi, where they essentially continue the dvarapala role on a higher
plane. Another part for Brahma was his insertion into panels within an image's
pedestal, first done at the Ananda, and then more prominently at the
Mye-bon-thahpaya-hla, where sandstone figures of the deity symbolically bear
the mass of the Buddha. Isolated images of Brahma have also been found, old
photographs of the Shwe-hsan-daw show him on the terrace comers, once again
protecting the hpaya.Of these some were saved and are now in the Pagan museum.
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| Indra appears rarely as a
single figure, even as a dvarapala. Only one known image of him from this
period is to be found in the Nat shrine in the precincts of the Shwe-zigon;
much regilded, the god bears his attributes of vajra and conch, is crowned with
a jatamukuta and is clad in a loincloth. Indra, or Sakka, was to be
incorporated into the Burmese national .pantheon of spirit gods, the -Thirty
Seven Nats, as Thagya-min, in later periods. There is little visual orliterary
evidence to suggest that this incorporation occurred during the Pagan period
and the present position of this image, in a Nat shrine of recent construction,
is coincidental.
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| 6) other Deities ofBrahmanic Origin |
| Ganesa, with an elephant
head and human body, was a deity known at Pagan arid, like Sakka, became
incorporated into postPagan spirit cults under the name of Mahapenni. Like
Brahma, Ganesa guarded the terraces of the Shwe-hsan-daw; what fragments that
survived, noted by Ray in 1932; are now lost. Thoug,h Ganesa's image has not
been found at the Pyu sites, a number of minor images have been found at Pagan,
when, according to Luce, they, mere often placed in relic chambersagain the
Brahmanic bulwarking Buddhism.' In painted form, Ganesa appears in the
Abe-ya-dana tondi.
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| Vishu had his own temple
at Pagan, the Nat-hlaungkyaung, and here a set of stone relief's depict his
various avatar and there are two, now headless and much battered, brick and
stucco images of the deity in the ambulatory; the main image, a depiction of
Vishnu anantasayin, is now lost. This was the temple of the local Indian
community and, though Vishnu was a popular deity, amongst both Pyu and Mon, his
image at Pagan does not appear to have been enrolled as a supporter of the
Buddha. However, Kyanzittha, selfstyled bodhisattva, claimed transmigral
descent from this deity in his panegyrics."'
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| There is no surviving
Siva temple Pagan, though one large and finely carved image of the god is now
in the Pagan museum. This was noted by Phayre at the Nat-hlaung-kyaung, and
recorded inhis description of this temple, which is included in Yule',
Narrative, and Thomann in his book, the first book on Pagan, photographed it in
situ in the Nat-hlaung-kyaung." Ray describes it as being stylistically of
South Indian origin from the 12th century' An inscription in Tamil, that also
dates from the later part of the period and records the dedication of a new
mandapa for the temple confirms this later South Indian connection. Possibly
the temple's dedication -widened to include the Siva cult in the later periods,
an interdenominational chapel for the Indian community. Alternatively, the
image may have been simply stored there, out of sight, lumped with other Hindu
images in their appropriate: residence: `The Shrine Confining the Devas'. Siva,
also appears, mounted on various vahana in a series of painted tondi in the
Abe-ya-dana.
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